diff --git a/bin/generate_schema.py b/bin/generate_schema.py
index e98f41b8b..0a357be9a 100755
--- a/bin/generate_schema.py
+++ b/bin/generate_schema.py
@@ -43,25 +43,8 @@
   inherit:
     type: object
     additionalProperties: false
-    properties:
-      audit-command: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      audit-requires: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      before-all: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      before-build: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      xbuild-tools: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      xbuild-files: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      before-test: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      config-settings: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      container-engine: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      environment: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      environment-pass: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      repair-wheel-command: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      test-command: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      test-extras: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      test-sources: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      test-requires: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      test-environment: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
-      test-runtime: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
+    description: Merge values with lower-precedence layers instead of replacing them.
+    properties: {}
   audit-command:
     description: Execute a shell command to audit each wheel after it is repaired. Use {wheel} for each wheel path, or {abi3_wheel} to only audit abi3 wheels.
     type: string_array
@@ -343,7 +326,24 @@
 for key, value in schema["properties"].items():
     value["title"] = f"CIBW_{key.replace('-', '_').upper()}"
 
+
+def inherit_ref_table(option_names: dict[str, Any]) -> dict[str, Any]:
+    return {
+        name: {"$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"}
+        for name in option_names
+        if name not in {"inherit", "select"}
+    }
+
+
+# any option can carry an inherit rule; derive the keys from the option list
+# so the schema stays in sync with the runtime (must run before the overrides
+# and platform sections are merged into the properties below)
+schema["properties"]["inherit"]["properties"] = inherit_ref_table(schema["properties"])
+
 non_global_options = {k: {"$ref": f"#/properties/{k}"} for k in schema["properties"]}
+# placeholder pinning the key's position; each section's real (narrower)
+# inherit table is filled in below, once the section's option set is final
+non_global_options["inherit"] = {}
 del non_global_options["build"]
 del non_global_options["skip"]
 del non_global_options["test-skip"]
@@ -393,6 +393,14 @@ def as_object(d: dict[str, Any]) -> dict[str, Any]:
 
 del oses["linux"]["properties"]["dependency-versions"]
 
+# each section only offers inherit rules for the options it can set
+for section in (overrides["items"], *oses.values()):
+    section["properties"]["inherit"] = {
+        "type": "object",
+        "additionalProperties": False,
+        "properties": inherit_ref_table(section["properties"]),
+    }
+
 schema["properties"]["overrides"] = overrides
 schema["properties"] |= oses
 
diff --git a/cibuildwheel/options.py b/cibuildwheel/options.py
index afac21d06..c05f07363 100644
--- a/cibuildwheel/options.py
+++ b/cibuildwheel/options.py
@@ -396,17 +396,21 @@ def _apply_inherit_rule(
         # if after is an empty string, we shouldn't add any separator
         return before
 
+    msg = f"Don't know how to merge {before!r} and {after!r} with {rule}"
+
     if not option_format:
-        msg = f"Don't know how to merge {before!r} and {after!r} with {rule}"
         raise OptionsReaderError(msg)
 
-    match rule:
-        case InheritRule.APPEND:
-            return option_format.merge_values(before, after)
-        case InheritRule.PREPEND:
-            return option_format.merge_values(after, before)
-        case _:
-            assert_never(rule)
+    try:
+        match rule:
+            case InheritRule.APPEND:
+                return option_format.merge_values(before, after)
+            case InheritRule.PREPEND:
+                return option_format.merge_values(after, before)
+            case _:
+                assert_never(rule)
+    except OptionFormat.NotSupported:
+        raise OptionsReaderError(msg) from None
 
 
 def _stringify_setting(
@@ -442,26 +446,50 @@ def _stringify_setting(
             return setting
 
 
-def parse_inherit(config: str | dict[str, str] | None) -> dict[str, InheritRule]:
-    inherit_dict: dict[str, str]
+def _suggestion(name: str, allowed_names: Set[str]) -> str:
+    """A hint like " Perhaps you meant 'x'?" naming the closest match, or ""."""
+    matches = difflib.get_close_matches(name, allowed_names, 1, 0.7)
+    return f" Perhaps you meant {matches[0]!r}?" if matches else ""
+
+
+def parse_inherit(
+    config: str | dict[str, str] | None, option_names: Set[str]
+) -> dict[str, InheritRule]:
+    inherit_dict: dict[str, Any]
 
     if config is None:
         return {}
 
     if isinstance(config, str):
-        parsed = parse_arbitrary_key_value_string(config, default_value="append")
-        inherit_dict = {k: "".join(v) for k, v in parsed.items()}
+        try:
+            parsed = parse_arbitrary_key_value_string(config, default_value="append")
+        except ValueError as e:
+            raise OptionsReaderError(str(e)) from e
+
+        for key, values in parsed.items():
+            if len(values) != 1:
+                msg = f"'inherit' rule for {key!r} must be a single value, got {values!r}"
+                raise OptionsReaderError(msg)
+
+        inherit_dict = {k: v[0] for k, v in parsed.items()}
     elif isinstance(config, dict):
         inherit_dict = config
     else:
         msg = "'inherit' must be a string or a table"
         raise OptionsReaderError(msg)
 
-    if not all(v in {"none", "append", "prepend"} for v in inherit_dict.values()):
-        msg = "'inherit' must contain only {'none', 'append', 'prepend'} values"
-        raise OptionsReaderError(msg)
+    rules = {}
+    for name, value in inherit_dict.items():
+        if name not in option_names:
+            msg = f"Option {name!r} not supported in 'inherit'.{_suggestion(name, option_names)}"
+            raise OptionsReaderError(msg)
+        if not isinstance(value, str) or value.upper() not in InheritRule.__members__:
+            valid_rules = ", ".join(repr(rule.name.lower()) for rule in InheritRule)
+            msg = f"'inherit' rule for {name!r} must be one of {valid_rules}, got {value!r}"
+            raise OptionsReaderError(msg)
+        rules[name] = InheritRule[value.upper()]
 
-    return {k: InheritRule[v.upper()] for k, v in inherit_dict.items()}
+    return rules
 
 
 class OptionsReader:
@@ -512,9 +540,25 @@ def __init__(
             self._validate_platform_option(option_name)
 
         self.config_options = config_options
-        self.config_options_inherit = parse_inherit(config_options.get("inherit"))
         self.config_platform_options = config_platform_options
-        self.config_platform_options_inherit = parse_inherit(config_platform_options.get("inherit"))
+
+        # the option names that 'inherit' rules may refer to
+        self._option_names = (
+            self.default_options.keys() | self.default_platform_options.keys()
+        ) - PLATFORMS
+
+        self.config_options_inherit = parse_inherit(
+            config_options.get("inherit"), self._option_names
+        )
+        self.config_platform_options_inherit = parse_inherit(
+            config_platform_options.get("inherit"), self._option_names
+        )
+
+        # all validation happens eagerly, so that malformed config fails fast
+        # even on code paths that never resolve per-identifier options
+        self.env_inherit = self._parse_env_inherit("CIBW_INHERIT")
+        self.env_platform_inherit = self._parse_env_inherit(f"CIBW_INHERIT_{platform.upper()}")
+        self.overrides = self._parse_overrides()
 
         self.current_identifier: str | None = None
 
@@ -526,10 +570,10 @@ def _validate_global_option(self, name: str) -> None:
         allowed_option_names = self.default_options.keys() | PLATFORMS | {"inherit", "overrides"}
 
         if name not in allowed_option_names:
-            msg = f"Option {name!r} not supported in a config file."
-            matches = difflib.get_close_matches(name, allowed_option_names, 1, 0.7)
-            if matches:
-                msg += f" Perhaps you meant {matches[0]!r}?"
+            msg = (
+                f"Option {name!r} not supported in a config file."
+                f"{_suggestion(name, allowed_option_names)}"
+            )
             raise OptionsReaderError(msg)
 
     def _validate_platform_option(self, name: str) -> None:
@@ -547,10 +591,10 @@ def _validate_platform_option(self, name: str) -> None:
         )
 
         if name not in allowed_option_names:
-            msg = f"Option {name!r} not supported in the {self.platform!r} section"
-            matches = difflib.get_close_matches(name, allowed_option_names, 1, 0.7)
-            if matches:
-                msg += f" Perhaps you meant {matches[0]!r}?"
+            msg = (
+                f"Option {name!r} not supported in the {self.platform!r} section"
+                f"{_suggestion(name, allowed_option_names)}"
+            )
             raise OptionsReaderError(msg)
 
     def _load_file(self, filename: Path) -> tuple[dict[str, Any], dict[str, Any]]:
@@ -565,8 +609,7 @@ def _load_file(self, filename: Path) -> tuple[dict[str, Any], dict[str, Any]]:
 
         return global_options, platform_options
 
-    @functools.cached_property
-    def overrides(self) -> list[Override]:
+    def _parse_overrides(self) -> list[Override]:
         config_overrides = self.config_options.get("overrides")
         overrides: list[Override] = []
 
@@ -587,34 +630,19 @@ def overrides(self) -> list[Override]:
 
                 inherit = config_override.pop("inherit", {})
 
-                overrides.append(Override(select, config_override, parse_inherit(inherit)))
+                overrides.append(
+                    Override(select, config_override, parse_inherit(inherit, self._option_names))
+                )
 
         return overrides
 
-    @functools.cached_property
-    def env_inherit(self) -> dict[str, InheritRule]:
-        env_inherit_str = self.env.get("CIBW_INHERIT", "")
+    def _parse_env_inherit(self, envvar: str) -> dict[str, InheritRule]:
         try:
-            return parse_inherit(env_inherit_str)
+            return parse_inherit(self.env.get(envvar), self._option_names)
         except OptionsReaderError as e:
-            msg = f"Failed to parse CIBW_INHERIT environment variable. {e}"
+            msg = f"Failed to parse {envvar} environment variable. {e}"
             raise errors.ConfigurationError(msg) from e
 
-    @functools.cached_property
-    def env_platform_inherit(self) -> dict[str, InheritRule]:
-        env_inherit = self.env_inherit
-
-        # find the rules which have -{platform} on the end of their key,
-        # remove the platform suffix from the key and return the resulting
-        # rule.
-        platform_suffix = f"-{self.platform}"
-
-        return {
-            key.removesuffix(platform_suffix): value
-            for key, value in env_inherit.items()
-            if key.endswith(platform_suffix)
-        }
-
     @property
     def active_config_overrides(self) -> list[Override]:
         if self.current_identifier is None:
@@ -661,15 +689,14 @@ def get(
 
         # get the option from the default, then the config file, then finally the environment.
         # platform-specific options are preferred, if they're allowed.
+        env_rule = self.env_inherit.get(name, default_env_rule)
+        # CIBW_INHERIT_<PLATFORM> rules win; CIBW_INHERIT rules also
+        # apply to the platform variable when no platform rule is set
+        plat_env_rule = self.env_platform_inherit.get(name, env_rule)
+
         return _resolve_cascade(
-            (
-                self.default_options.get(name),
-                InheritRule.NONE,
-            ),
-            (
-                self.default_platform_options.get(name),
-                InheritRule.NONE,
-            ),
+            (self.default_options.get(name), InheritRule.NONE),
+            (self.default_platform_options.get(name), InheritRule.NONE),
             (
                 self.config_options.get(name),
                 self.config_options_inherit.get(name, InheritRule.NONE),
@@ -679,20 +706,11 @@ def get(
                 self.config_platform_options_inherit.get(name, InheritRule.NONE),
             ),
             *[
-                (
-                    o.options.get(name),
-                    o.inherit.get(name, InheritRule.NONE),
-                )
+                (o.options.get(name), o.inherit.get(name, InheritRule.NONE))
                 for o in self.active_config_overrides
             ],
-            (
-                self.env.get(envvar),
-                self.env_inherit.get(name, default_env_rule),
-            ),
-            (
-                self.env.get(plat_envvar) if env_plat else None,
-                self.env_platform_inherit.get(name, default_env_rule),
-            ),
+            (self.env.get(envvar), env_rule),
+            (self.env.get(plat_envvar) if env_plat else None, plat_env_rule),
             ignore_empty=ignore_empty,
             option_format=option_format,
         )
@@ -862,7 +880,7 @@ def _compute_build_options(self, identifier: str | None) -> BuildOptions:
 
             test_command = self.reader.get("test-command", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" && "))
             before_test = self.reader.get("before-test", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" && "))
-            xbuild_tools: list[str] | None = shlex.split(
+            raw_xbuild_tools = shlex.split(
                 self.reader.get(
                     "xbuild-tools", option_format=ListFormat(sep=" ", quote=shlex.quote)
                 )
@@ -871,8 +889,12 @@ def _compute_build_options(self, identifier: str | None) -> BuildOptions:
             # doesn't have an explicit NULL value. If xbuild-tools is set to the
             # sentinel, it indicates that the user hasn't defined xbuild-tools
             # *at all* (not even an `xbuild-tools = []` definition).
-            if xbuild_tools == ["\u0000"]:
+            xbuild_tools: list[str] | None
+            if raw_xbuild_tools == ["\u0000"]:
                 xbuild_tools = None
+            else:
+                # an inherit rule may have merged real values with the sentinel
+                xbuild_tools = [tool for tool in raw_xbuild_tools if tool != "\u0000"]
 
             xbuild_files = parse_arbitrary_key_value_string(
                 self.reader.get(
diff --git a/cibuildwheel/resources/cibuildwheel.schema.json b/cibuildwheel/resources/cibuildwheel.schema.json
index 7bce36d36..23323d559 100644
--- a/cibuildwheel/resources/cibuildwheel.schema.json
+++ b/cibuildwheel/resources/cibuildwheel.schema.json
@@ -29,6 +29,7 @@
     "inherit": {
       "type": "object",
       "additionalProperties": false,
+      "description": "Merge values with lower-precedence layers instead of replacing them.",
       "properties": {
         "audit-command": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
@@ -36,19 +37,25 @@
         "audit-requires": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
+        "archs": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
         "before-all": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
         "before-build": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
-        "xbuild-tools": {
+        "before-test": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
-        "xbuild-files": {
+        "build": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
-        "before-test": {
+        "build-frontend": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "build-verbosity": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
         "config-settings": {
@@ -57,15 +64,84 @@
         "container-engine": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
+        "dependency-versions": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "enable": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
         "environment": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
         "environment-pass": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
+        "manylinux-aarch64-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "manylinux-armv7l-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "manylinux-i686-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "manylinux-ppc64le-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "manylinux-pypy_aarch64-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "manylinux-pypy_i686-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "manylinux-pypy_x86_64-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "manylinux-riscv64-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "manylinux-s390x-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "manylinux-x86_64-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "musllinux-aarch64-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "musllinux-armv7l-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "musllinux-i686-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "musllinux-ppc64le-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "musllinux-riscv64-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "musllinux-s390x-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "musllinux-x86_64-image": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "xbuild-tools": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "xbuild-files": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
+        "pyodide-version": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
         "repair-wheel-command": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
+        "skip": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
         "test-command": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
@@ -75,9 +151,15 @@
         "test-sources": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
+        "test-groups": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
         "test-requires": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
+        "test-skip": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+        },
         "test-environment": {
           "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
         },
@@ -750,7 +832,130 @@
             ]
           },
           "inherit": {
-            "$ref": "#/properties/inherit"
+            "type": "object",
+            "additionalProperties": false,
+            "properties": {
+              "audit-command": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "audit-requires": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "before-all": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "before-build": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "before-test": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "build-frontend": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "build-verbosity": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "config-settings": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "container-engine": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "dependency-versions": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "environment": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "environment-pass": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "manylinux-aarch64-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "manylinux-armv7l-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "manylinux-i686-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "manylinux-ppc64le-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "manylinux-pypy_aarch64-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "manylinux-pypy_i686-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "manylinux-pypy_x86_64-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "manylinux-riscv64-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "manylinux-s390x-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "manylinux-x86_64-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "musllinux-aarch64-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "musllinux-armv7l-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "musllinux-i686-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "musllinux-ppc64le-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "musllinux-riscv64-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "musllinux-s390x-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "musllinux-x86_64-image": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "xbuild-tools": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "xbuild-files": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "pyodide-version": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "repair-wheel-command": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "test-command": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "test-extras": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "test-sources": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "test-groups": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "test-requires": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "test-environment": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              },
+              "test-runtime": {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+              }
+            }
           },
           "audit-command": {
             "$ref": "#/properties/audit-command"
@@ -880,7 +1085,130 @@
       "additionalProperties": false,
       "properties": {
         "inherit": {
-          "$ref": "#/properties/inherit"
+          "type": "object",
+          "additionalProperties": false,
+          "properties": {
+            "audit-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "audit-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "archs": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-all": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-build": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-test": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-frontend": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-verbosity": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "config-settings": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "container-engine": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "environment-pass": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "manylinux-aarch64-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "manylinux-armv7l-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "manylinux-i686-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "manylinux-ppc64le-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "manylinux-pypy_aarch64-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "manylinux-pypy_i686-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "manylinux-pypy_x86_64-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "manylinux-riscv64-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "manylinux-s390x-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "manylinux-x86_64-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "musllinux-aarch64-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "musllinux-armv7l-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "musllinux-i686-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "musllinux-ppc64le-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "musllinux-riscv64-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "musllinux-s390x-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "musllinux-x86_64-image": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-tools": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-files": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "pyodide-version": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "repair-wheel-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-extras": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-sources": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-groups": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-runtime": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            }
+          }
         },
         "audit-command": {
           "$ref": "#/properties/audit-command"
@@ -1022,7 +1350,76 @@
       "additionalProperties": false,
       "properties": {
         "inherit": {
-          "$ref": "#/properties/inherit"
+          "type": "object",
+          "additionalProperties": false,
+          "properties": {
+            "audit-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "audit-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "archs": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-all": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-build": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-test": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-frontend": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-verbosity": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "config-settings": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "dependency-versions": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-tools": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-files": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "pyodide-version": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "repair-wheel-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-extras": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-sources": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-groups": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-runtime": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            }
+          }
         },
         "audit-command": {
           "$ref": "#/properties/audit-command"
@@ -1110,7 +1507,76 @@
       "additionalProperties": false,
       "properties": {
         "inherit": {
-          "$ref": "#/properties/inherit"
+          "type": "object",
+          "additionalProperties": false,
+          "properties": {
+            "audit-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "audit-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "archs": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-all": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-build": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-test": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-frontend": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-verbosity": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "config-settings": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "dependency-versions": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-tools": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-files": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "pyodide-version": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "repair-wheel-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-extras": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-sources": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-groups": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-runtime": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            }
+          }
         },
         "audit-command": {
           "$ref": "#/properties/audit-command"
@@ -1198,7 +1664,76 @@
       "additionalProperties": false,
       "properties": {
         "inherit": {
-          "$ref": "#/properties/inherit"
+          "type": "object",
+          "additionalProperties": false,
+          "properties": {
+            "audit-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "audit-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "archs": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-all": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-build": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-test": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-frontend": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-verbosity": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "config-settings": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "dependency-versions": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-tools": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-files": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "pyodide-version": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "repair-wheel-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-extras": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-sources": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-groups": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-runtime": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            }
+          }
         },
         "audit-command": {
           "$ref": "#/properties/audit-command"
@@ -1273,7 +1808,76 @@
       "additionalProperties": false,
       "properties": {
         "inherit": {
-          "$ref": "#/properties/inherit"
+          "type": "object",
+          "additionalProperties": false,
+          "properties": {
+            "audit-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "audit-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "archs": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-all": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-build": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-test": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-frontend": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-verbosity": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "config-settings": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "dependency-versions": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-tools": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-files": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "pyodide-version": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "repair-wheel-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-extras": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-sources": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-groups": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-runtime": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            }
+          }
         },
         "audit-command": {
           "$ref": "#/properties/audit-command"
@@ -1361,7 +1965,76 @@
       "additionalProperties": false,
       "properties": {
         "inherit": {
-          "$ref": "#/properties/inherit"
+          "type": "object",
+          "additionalProperties": false,
+          "properties": {
+            "audit-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "audit-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "archs": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-all": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-build": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "before-test": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-frontend": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "build-verbosity": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "config-settings": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "dependency-versions": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-tools": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "xbuild-files": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "pyodide-version": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "repair-wheel-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-command": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-extras": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-sources": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-groups": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-requires": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-environment": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            },
+            "test-runtime": {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/inherit"
+            }
+          }
         },
         "audit-command": {
           "$ref": "#/properties/audit-command"
diff --git a/cibuildwheel/util/helpers.py b/cibuildwheel/util/helpers.py
index 1121c7244..41f00fa5b 100644
--- a/cibuildwheel/util/helpers.py
+++ b/cibuildwheel/util/helpers.py
@@ -102,6 +102,9 @@ def parse_key_value_string(
     key_value_string: str,
     positional_arg_names: Sequence[str] | None = None,
     kw_arg_names: Sequence[str] | None = None,
+    *,
+    arbitrary_keys: bool = False,
+    default_value: str | None = None,
 ) -> dict[str, list[str]]:
     """
     Parses a string like "docker; create_args: --some-option=value another-option"
@@ -128,11 +131,19 @@ def parse_key_value_string(
         # check to see if the option name is specified
         field_name, sep, first_value = field[0].partition(":")
         if sep:
-            if field_name not in all_field_names:
+            if not arbitrary_keys and field_name not in all_field_names:
                 msg = f"Failed to parse {key_value_string!r}. Unknown field name {field_name!r}"
                 raise ValueError(msg)
 
-            values = ([first_value] if first_value else []) + field[1:]
+            result[field_name] += ([first_value] if first_value else []) + field[1:]
+        elif arbitrary_keys:
+            # bare words are keys without values
+            if default_value is None:
+                msg = f"Failed to parse {key_value_string!r}. No value specified for {field_name!r}. Expected ':' followed by a value."
+                raise ValueError(msg)
+
+            for key in field:
+                result[key].append(default_value)
         else:
             try:
                 field_name = positional_arg_names[field_i]
@@ -140,9 +151,7 @@ def parse_key_value_string(
                 msg = f"Failed to parse {key_value_string!r}. Too many positional arguments - expected a maximum of {len(positional_arg_names)}"
                 raise ValueError(msg) from None
 
-            values = field
-
-        result[field_name] += values
+            result[field_name] += field
 
     return dict(result)
 
@@ -163,33 +172,9 @@ def parse_arbitrary_key_value_string(
     interpreted as keys. Keys without a value will be assigned the
     default_value if provided, otherwise throw an error.
     """
-    shlexer = shlex.shlex(key_value_string, posix=True, punctuation_chars=";")
-    shlexer.commenters = ""
-    shlexer.whitespace_split = True
-    parts = list(shlexer)
-    # parts now looks like
-    # ['before-build', ';', 'before-test:', 'append', ';', 'after-test:', 'prepend']
-
-    # split by semicolon
-    result: defaultdict[str, list[str]] = defaultdict(list)
-    fields = [list(group) for k, group in itertools.groupby(parts, lambda x: x == ";") if not k]
-    for field in fields:
-        # check to see if the option name is specified
-        field_name, sep, first_value = field[0].partition(":")
-        if sep:
-            # the colon was present, so the first value is the value after the colon
-            values = ([first_value] if first_value else []) + field[1:]
-            result[field_name] += values
-        else:
-            # no colon, so it's a key (or set of keys) without values
-            if default_value is None:
-                msg = f"Failed to parse {key_value_string!r}. No value specified for {field_name!r}. Expected ':' followed by a value."
-                raise ValueError(msg)
-
-            for key in field:
-                result[key].append(default_value)
-
-    return dict(result)
+    return parse_key_value_string(
+        key_value_string, arbitrary_keys=True, default_value=default_value
+    )
 
 
 @dataclasses.dataclass(order=True)
diff --git a/docs/configuration.md b/docs/configuration.md
index 6a3576383..cb1f9d397 100644
--- a/docs/configuration.md
+++ b/docs/configuration.md
@@ -259,11 +259,14 @@ CIBW_AUDIT_COMMAND: "twine check {wheel}"
 CIBW_INHERIT: "audit-requires; audit-command"
 ```
 
-To control a platform-specific environment variable, add the lowercase platform
-suffix to the option name. For example, this prepends `CIBW_BEFORE_ALL_LINUX` to
-the value accumulated from the lower-precedence layers:
+Rules in `CIBW_INHERIT` apply to both the plain `CIBW_<OPTION>` variable and
+the platform-specific `CIBW_<OPTION>_<PLATFORM>` variable. To set rules that
+apply only to the platform-specific variables, use `CIBW_INHERIT_<PLATFORM>`;
+those rules take precedence over `CIBW_INHERIT` for the platform-specific
+variables. For example, this prepends `CIBW_BEFORE_ALL_LINUX` to the value
+accumulated from the lower-precedence layers:
 
 ```yaml
 CIBW_BEFORE_ALL_LINUX: yum install -y libffi-devel
-CIBW_INHERIT: "before-all-linux: prepend"
+CIBW_INHERIT_LINUX: "before-all: prepend"
 ```
diff --git a/unit_test/options_reader_test.py b/unit_test/options_reader_test.py
index 140b335ca..1be327aa9 100644
--- a/unit_test/options_reader_test.py
+++ b/unit_test/options_reader_test.py
@@ -475,11 +475,7 @@ def test_overrides_not_a_list(tmp_path: Path, platform: str) -> None:
     )
 
     with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError):
-        print(
-            OptionsReader(
-                config_file_path=pyproject_toml, platform=cast("Any", platform), env={}
-            ).overrides
-        )
+        OptionsReader(config_file_path=pyproject_toml, platform=cast("Any", platform), env={})
 
 
 def test_config_settings(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
@@ -608,7 +604,8 @@ def test_environment_inherit(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
             "CIBW_BEFORE_ALL": "env",
             "CIBW_BEFORE_ALL_LINUX": "linux-env",
             # A key without a value defaults to append.
-            "CIBW_INHERIT": "before-all; before-all-linux: prepend",
+            "CIBW_INHERIT": "before-all",
+            "CIBW_INHERIT_LINUX": "before-all: prepend",
         },
     )
 
@@ -649,17 +646,120 @@ def test_invalid_config_inherit_rule(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
 """
     )
 
-    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError, match="must contain only"):
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError, match="must be one of"):
         OptionsReader(pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})
 
 
 def test_invalid_environment_inherit_rule() -> None:
-    options_reader = OptionsReader(platform="linux", env={"CIBW_INHERIT": "before-all: invalid"})
+    with pytest.raises(
+        errors.ConfigurationError, match="Failed to parse CIBW_INHERIT environment variable"
+    ):
+        OptionsReader(platform="linux", env={"CIBW_INHERIT": "before-all: invalid"})
+
+
+def test_environment_inherit_applies_to_platform_variable(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    """A CIBW_INHERIT rule also covers CIBW_<OPTION>_<PLATFORM> variables."""
+    pyproject_toml = tmp_path / "pyproject.toml"
+    pyproject_toml.write_text(
+        """\
+[tool.cibuildwheel]
+before-all = "config"
+"""
+    )
+
+    options_reader = OptionsReader(
+        pyproject_toml,
+        platform="linux",
+        env={"CIBW_BEFORE_ALL_LINUX": "linux-env", "CIBW_INHERIT": "before-all"},
+    )
 
+    assert (
+        options_reader.get("before-all", option_format=ListFormat(" && ")) == "config && linux-env"
+    )
+
+
+def test_config_inherit_unknown_key(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    pyproject_toml = tmp_path / "pyproject.toml"
+    pyproject_toml.write_text(
+        """\
+[tool.cibuildwheel]
+inherit = {befor-all = "append"}
+before-all = "echo hi"
+"""
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError, match="Perhaps you meant 'before-all'"):
+        OptionsReader(pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})
+
+
+def test_config_inherit_non_string_rule(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    pyproject_toml = tmp_path / "pyproject.toml"
+    pyproject_toml.write_text(
+        """\
+[tool.cibuildwheel]
+inherit = {before-all = ["append"]}
+"""
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError, match="must be one of"):
+        OptionsReader(pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})
+
+
+def test_environment_inherit_unknown_key() -> None:
+    with pytest.raises(errors.ConfigurationError, match="Perhaps you meant 'test-requires'"):
+        OptionsReader(platform="linux", env={"CIBW_INHERIT": "test_requires"})
+
+
+def test_environment_inherit_missing_colon() -> None:
+    # 'prepend' is read as another (invalid) option name, not as a rule
+    with pytest.raises(errors.ConfigurationError, match="'prepend' not supported"):
+        OptionsReader(platform="linux", env={"CIBW_INHERIT": "before-all prepend"})
+
+
+def test_environment_inherit_multiple_rules_for_key() -> None:
+    with pytest.raises(errors.ConfigurationError, match="single"):
+        OptionsReader(platform="linux", env={"CIBW_INHERIT": "before-all: none append"})
+
+
+def test_environment_inherit_unbalanced_quote() -> None:
     with pytest.raises(
         errors.ConfigurationError, match="Failed to parse CIBW_INHERIT environment variable"
     ):
-        options_reader.get("before-all", option_format=ListFormat(" && "))
+        OptionsReader(platform="linux", env={"CIBW_INHERIT": 'before-all: "append'})
+
+
+def test_environment_inherit_platform_suffix_not_special() -> None:
+    # platform scoping uses CIBW_INHERIT_<PLATFORM>, not a suffix on the key
+    with pytest.raises(errors.ConfigurationError, match="before-all-linux"):
+        OptionsReader(platform="linux", env={"CIBW_INHERIT": "before-all-linux: prepend"})
+
+
+def test_environment_inherit_unmergeable_option() -> None:
+    options_reader = OptionsReader(
+        platform="linux",
+        env={"CIBW_CONTAINER_ENGINE": "podman", "CIBW_INHERIT": "container-engine"},
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError, match="merge"):
+        options_reader.get(
+            "container-engine",
+            option_format=ShlexTableFormat(sep="; ", pair_sep=":", allow_merge=False),
+        )
+
+
+def test_overrides_validated_without_identifier(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    """Malformed overrides must fail fast, even on paths that never resolve
+    per-identifier options, e.g. --print-build-identifiers."""
+    pyproject_toml = tmp_path / "pyproject.toml"
+    pyproject_toml.write_text(
+        """\
+[[tool.cibuildwheel.overrides]]
+before-all = "echo hi"
+"""
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(OptionsReaderError, match="'select' must be set"):
+        OptionsReader(pyproject_toml, platform="linux", env={})
 
 
 def test_audit_command_option(tmp_path: Path, platform: PlatformName) -> None:
diff --git a/unit_test/options_test.py b/unit_test/options_test.py
index f5f8d7a08..b2cdc8637 100644
--- a/unit_test/options_test.py
+++ b/unit_test/options_test.py
@@ -786,6 +786,25 @@ def test_xbuild_tools_handling(tmp_path: Path, definition: str, expected: list[s
     assert local.xbuild_tools == expected
 
 
+def test_xbuild_tools_inherit_does_not_leak_sentinel(tmp_path: Path) -> None:
+    """An append rule must not merge the user's tools with the "\\u0000"
+    unset-sentinel default."""
+    args = CommandLineArguments.defaults()
+    args.package_dir = tmp_path
+
+    pyproject_toml: Path = tmp_path / "pyproject.toml"
+    pyproject_toml.write_text("[tool.cibuildwheel]\n")
+
+    options = Options(
+        platform="ios",
+        command_line_arguments=args,
+        env={"CIBW_XBUILD_TOOLS": "cmake", "CIBW_INHERIT": "xbuild-tools"},
+    )
+
+    local = options.build_options("cp313-ios_13_0_arm64_iphoneos")
+    assert local.xbuild_tools == ["cmake"]
+
+
 DEFAULT_XBUILD_FILES = {
     "numpy": [
         "numpy/_core/include/numpy/_numpyconfig.h",
diff --git a/unit_test/validate_schema_test.py b/unit_test/validate_schema_test.py
index 85f5eae6b..757b4db47 100644
--- a/unit_test/validate_schema_test.py
+++ b/unit_test/validate_schema_test.py
@@ -143,6 +143,32 @@ def test_overrides_invalid_inherit_value(validator: validate_pyproject.api.Valid
         validator(example)
 
 
+def test_global_inherit_covers_all_options(validator: validate_pyproject.api.Validator) -> None:
+    example = tomllib.loads(
+        """
+        [tool.cibuildwheel]
+        inherit.enable = "append"
+        inherit.archs = "append"
+        inherit.audit-command = "append"
+        enable = ["pypy"]
+        """
+    )
+
+    assert validator(example) is not None
+
+
+def test_global_inherit_invalid_key(validator: validate_pyproject.api.Validator) -> None:
+    example = tomllib.loads(
+        """
+        [tool.cibuildwheel]
+        inherit.something = "append"
+        """
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(validate_pyproject.error_reporting.ValidationError):
+        validator(example)
+
+
 def test_docs_examples(validator: validate_pyproject.api.Validator) -> None:
     """
     Parse out all the configuration examples, build valid TOML out of them, and